Vaccines

Vaccines child

Last Updated December 20th, 2021

Overview of vaccines

Numerous diseases can impact health and lifestyle at any point in time during an individual’s life. Few of them are contagious, few are fatal and few are resistible. Irrespective of the nature of the disease, the human body should have the capacity, more precisely the immune capacity to combat the pathogens or causative agents triggering these diseases. This necessitates adequate immunization in childhood through the injection of vaccines. But before that, a proper knowledge of the required vaccinations and possible reactions is necessary so as to determine the types of immunizations a child can sustain. Unfortunately, in many countries, the knowledge related to immunizations is lacking and this has resulted in 19.4 million immunocompromised infants worldwide in the year 2015.

 

What are vaccines?

VaccinesVaccines are medically defined as antigenic agents synthesized from the causative agent of a disease (or any other artificial substitute of the same) which are essential for building body immunity against several diseases. There are specific vaccines for different diseases and each of them has a significant role in building the body’s immune capacity. Vaccines are also known to be used to treat certain diseases (therapeutic vaccines). Vaccines are normally delivered in liquid form via injections, or via oral or intranasal paths. Vaccines are usually synthesized from whole microorganisms or specific components of microorganisms and provide protection against that particular pathogen (viral or bacterial) in future.

 

What are the properties of vaccines?

Two primary factors determine the disease-preventing ability of a vaccine. These are-

  • Effectiveness and durability of the administered vaccine
  • Vaccination coverage in a given population

Vaccines adultTwo important properties that determine the utility of vaccines are –

  • Vaccine effectiveness– It is defined as the performance of a particular vaccine under varying field conditions. Vaccine effectiveness strongly depends on the performance of vaccine delivery programs. It basically measures the ability of a vaccine to prevent the detrimental effects of a certain disease (such as hospitalization or death).
  • Vaccine efficacy– It is defined as the performance of a particular vaccine under specific study conditions (prospective approach). Vaccine efficacy measures the extent of prevention of a disease.

Apart from the ones discussed above, all vaccines should have the following essential properties-

  • Ability to provide long-lasting immunity
  • Ability to provide both humoral (extracellular) and cellular immunity
  • Should not trigger autoimmune effects or hypersensitivity
  • Should have a reasonable cost of production
  • Can be stored and delivered under normal environmental conditions
  • Should be safe to use

 

Types of immunizations

Immunizations are broadly classified into two categories. These are described below-

  • Active immunization: It is the type of immunization acquired via past occurrence of a particular disease. Individuals surviving the disease (caused by a specific pathogen) are less susceptible to the same disease in future. Active immunization involves the production of antibodies (humoral or cellular) in response to a specific antigen. Vaccines can induce active immunization by creating immunological memory (generate immune response similar to that evoked by a natural disease). It is usually long lasting in nature.
  • Passive immunization: It is the type of immunization in which antibodies are passed on to one person from another, such as from mother to fetus. This type of immunization is temporary in nature and cannot provide protection after the progressive degradation of antibodies. Transplacental immunization is the most common example of this type.

 

The working mechanism of vaccines

Vaccines childWhen vaccines are injected into the body in the form of inactivated or weakened pathogens, an immune response is triggered, which is similar to the body’s natural response to an infection.

The only difference is that in case of artificially injected pathogens, possibilities of occurrence of the disease is nil since the pathogens are in benign condition and do not have the capacity to cause infections.

The disease-causing pathogens are called “antigens” and the substances produced by the body in response to these antigens are called “antibodies”.

The antibodies combine with the antigens and destroy them through the mediation of the immune cells of the body (T lymphocytes). The artificially induced immune response creates immunological memory (both humoral and cellular) within the body and helps the body identify and destroy similar infectious pathogens in the future. In this way, diseases are prevented effectively.

 

Different types of vaccines

Vaccines are classified into different categories depending on the source of derivation and composition. These are discussed below-

Live attenuated vaccines

These vaccines are extracted from disease-causing bacteria or virus. These pathogens are attenuated and inactivated in the laboratory through repeated testing and culturing. Multiplication of the attenuated pathogens (in the form of vaccines) occurs within the body of the vaccinated person for a considerable period of time, which in turn triggers an immune response. These vaccines are usually provided in low dosage and do not cause disease within the body. In few rare cases, they might induce infections of very mild nature since these pathogens are almost benign in nature.

 What are the advantages? 

  • The injected microbes can help generate immunological memory similar to the one induced by natural disease.
  • Only a very small dosage is required since these microbes replicate within the body.
  • One time administration is enough for long-lasting immunity. Multiple booster doses are unnecessary.
  • Administration of whole microbes can cause protection against few other kinds of infections as well.
  • Few vaccines of this category can be delivered orally and can provide effective protection against the pathogen at the site of infection itself (Eg: vaccines for mucosal immunity and IgA synthesis). These oral vaccines are much cheaper.
  • These vaccines can help regulate epidemics.

What are the disadvantages?

  • In few rare cases, these supposedly benign vaccines may transform into virulent forms and cause severe infections.
  • Live attenuated vaccines cannot be provided to individuals having very weak immunity since they can cause serious illnesses and even death.
  • Optimum storage conditions are required since these microbes need to be in a condition to replicate after administration into the individual’s body.
  • Intervention by circulating antibodies in the body may impede the development of active immunity due to poor immune response.
  • These microbes are easily degradable and are extremely thermosensitive and photosensitive.

Inactivated vaccines

These vaccines are produced via bacterial and viral culturing in the laboratories and are then inactivated by heat or chemicals (mostly formalin). For synthesizing fractional vaccines, the inactivated microbes are further cultured and treated to extract only those components of the pathogen essential for vaccine preparation. A common example of this type is the polysaccharide capsule of Pneumococcus, In this case, chances of infection after administration of the vaccines are nil (even in an immunosuppressed individual) since the microbes are dead and cannot multiply within the body. A full dosage of the vaccine is administered at the same time. Two to three booster doses are required in this case for full protection against the disease. Examples of inactivated whole virus vaccines are- Influenza, Polio, Rabies and Hepatitis A. Examples of inactivated whole bacterial vaccines are- Pertussis, Typhoid, Cholera, and Plague.

 What are the advantages?

  • It is very safe to use and can be administered to immunosuppressed individuals and pregnant women
  • They are cheaper than attenuated vaccines
  • Optimum storage conditions are not required since the microbes are inactivated
  • They are not disturbed by circulating antibodies

What are the disadvantages?

  • A full dose of the vaccine has to be injected since the pathogens do not replicate within the body
  • A single dose only provides primary immunity. But for full immunity, multiple booster doses are needed
  • It is not very effective for generating cellular immunity
  • Few vaccines of this class can trigger adverse reactions after injection (Eg: encephalomyelitis induced by Bordetella pertussis)

Subunit vaccines 

Subunit vaccines are prepared from fractional components of the microorganism instead of the entire microbe. This is done in order to extract those antigens that provide protective immunity. Subunit vaccines are mainly made up of toxoids, subcellular components, and surface antigens. The performance of subunit vaccines is enhanced by administering them with adjuvants. They facilitate sustained immune stimulation.

 What are the advantages?

  • These vaccines can be safely administered to immunodeficient people
  • They normally do not produce side effects

What are the disadvantages?

  • These vaccines are less effective in terms of antigenicity. For example, peptide segments do not produce the same immune effect as that of the entire organism.
  • Some of the peptides are closely linked to the Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) and hence cannot provide complete immunity against all kinds of diseases.

Polysaccharide vaccines

These are a category of subunit vaccines made up of sugar molecule chains and are often found on the surface capsules of few bacteria. Immune response triggered by polysaccharide vaccines are usually T-cell independent. These vaccines are not very effective in immunodeficient people especially in infants (since they have immature immune systems). Performance of polysaccharide vaccines induced antibody is less than that induced by protein antigens because, in the former, very less IgG is produced. Examples of Polysaccharide vaccines are Pneumococcal, Meningococcal and Salmonella typhi.

Conjugate vaccines

These are primarily synthesized from capsulated bacteria and eliminate the problems related to polysaccharide vaccines. The conjugated bonds transform the immune response from T-cell independent to T-cell dependent. This enhances immunogenicity in infants. But one major disadvantage is that the extracted capsulated antigen acts as subunit vaccine and can enhance only humoral (extracellular) immunity. Also, multiple booster doses are required to induce complete immunity.

Recombinant vaccines

The vaccines produced by means of recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering are called recombinant vaccines. The different means of preparation of this kind of vaccines are-

  • Use of engineered vector (Eg: Vaccinia virus)
  • Introducing mutation by deleting a portion of DNA
  • Reassortment of genomes of virulent and avirulent variants
  • Edible vaccines produced via introducing genetic coding for significant antigens in plants

What are the advantages?

  • These vaccines can be safely administered and are easy to store
  • Antigen segments having adverse effects can be safely removed from the main vaccine. Eg: Cholera toxin A can be safely eliminated from cholera vaccine

 What are the disadvantages?

  • Cost of production is high since the synthesizing process involves relocation, cloning, and expression of the antigen in the new vector
  • It generates adverse reactions in immunodeficient people

DNA vaccines

These types of vaccines are still in the research stage. In this case, the required antigens are located and cloned. The DNA is injected into the muscle cells of the vaccine recipient. They can also be introduced via the intranasal path. DNA vaccines provide both humoral and cellular immunity.

 What are the advantages? 

  • Transport and storage of DNA vaccines are very easy since the DNA molecules are very stable and are resistant to light and temperature
  • The DNA sequence can be changed anytime in the laboratory as per requirements
  • The injected DNA does not replicate and only the necessary proteins are encoded
  • Due to the absence of a protein component, no immune response is created against the inserted vaccine

What are the disadvantages?

  • Insertional mutagenesis may result from insertion of DNA into the host genome
  • Anti-DNA antibodies may be generated in response to introduced DNA

 

The dosage of common vaccines

Dosage recommendations of few common vaccines are listed below-

 

What are the adverse effects of vaccinations?

Infants having severe allergic reactions to vaccines should be immunized only after proper consultation with a pediatrician. In general, the following reactions are observed after immunization-

 

Benefits of vaccination

  • Vaccinations are administered to children to ensure that they do not end up with serious health conditions such as meningitis, measles etc.
  • Vaccinations help in ensuring that children don’t develop or acquire disabling or life-threatening malaises and infections.

Side effects of vaccinations

  • Fever
  • Headache
  • Fatigue
  • Joint or body pain
  • Shivering
  • Soreness or redness at the injection site.

 

 

Dos and Don'ts

Dos
  • Get a flu vaccination every year to help prevent the flu.
  • Take the patient to the hospital in case there are any abnormal reactions posts the vaccination.
  • Maintain a healthy diet of whole-grains before getting a vaccination shot.
Don'ts
  • Vaccinate an infant if they are sick as their immune system would be weak. Doing so can make the pathogens enter the central nervous system and cause life-threatening damages.
  • Get your child vaccinated again with the same vaccines if your child had a reaction to it the first time. Doing so could lead to severe reactions

 

 

 

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Jack in the box fast food
Jack In the Box : The perils of surging fast food culture in the USA Jack in the Box - How a culture of fast-food can clog your arteries, weaken your heart, fatten…
Juice Plus: Can you really replace actual fruits with pills?  Juice Plus supplements intend to fill nutritional gaps present in our daily diet. But how successful have they…
Shilajit: A miracle Himalayan herb for an active and happy life The Himalayas contain more wonders than you thought. Shilajit is a miracle herb that is widely used in…
Did you know drinking alkaline water could be the healthier choice for you? Ever wondered how safe is your drinking water in terms of pH? Recent studies have revealed that Alkaline…
Urologist: When should you visit one and why? A urologist can treat not only genitourinary problems of both men and women but also can treat various…
Bubble Tea: Bubbling with nutrition or a hidden sugar mine? The tapioca pearls present in the tea looks like bubbles and hence the name bubble tea became popular.…
LFT-test
Liver Function Test – LFT LFT or Liver Function Test is a blood test used to determine the levels of hepatic enzymes which…
CEA_test
Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) test CEA or carcinoembryonic test detects the presence of CEA antigen in your blood mainly & determines the effectiveness…
shiitake mushrooms healthy
What are Shiitake Mushrooms and why should you eat them? Shiitake Mushrooms are well known for their smoky and robust taste. However, did you know they are replete…
woman with abdominal pain holding ovulation calendar
Ovulation – facts to know about ovulation Learn how and when ovulation occurs, demystify common misconceptions, identify symptoms, methods of detection and right period for…
GM Diet: The fastest way to lose weight or yet another hoax diet? General Motors started this trend of extreme dieting for 7 straight days to ensure its employees were able…
CLA: A breakthrough weight loss supplement with minimal side effects Tried every weight loss supplement in the market with no substantial gain? Why not try CLA supplements, derived…
Psyllium Husk: More than just an effective natural laxative Psyllium husk, or isabgol, is a popular natural laxative . But did you in addition to regulating bowels,…
Goji berry: A traditional Chinese berry that packs the best of antioxidants Goji berry is an ancient berry that is considered to be power-packed with nutrients and antioxidants. Which means…
Tart Cherry: The healthiest excuse for taking that second serving of pie Tart cherry has been traditionally used in delectable desserts such as pies. Recent studies have revealed that its…
GERD heartburn
Heartburn: What are the exact symptoms and the best home remedies? There are easy home remedies for heartburn, which not only acts as a first aid when you experience…
amylase test
Amylase Test Amylase test is done by checking the level of this protein in the blood sample and also in…
Rubella IgM test
Rubella IgM Test The Rubella IgM test is a blood test that is performed to diagnose the presence of the rubella…
antiHEV IgM test
Anti hepatitis E virus (Anti HEV) IgM Test Anti HEV IgM test determines the level of the IgM antibodies in the blood, The disease is often…
sodium blood test
Blood Sodium Test A blood sodium test measures the amount of sodium (an important electrolyte) in your body. It is also…
leptospira Igm test
Leptospira-IgM Test A Leptospira-IgM test is a blood test which is carried out to detect anti-Leptospira IgM antibody. Leptospirosis is…
blood ketone test
Blood Ketone (D3HB) Test The Blood Ketone Test measures and monitors the levels of ketone in the blood which is usually performed…
Hymenoplasty
Hymenoplasty Read on to find out all about hymenoplasty, the procedure, post-surgery care, the risks, and the benefits.
hidden benefits walking
9 benefits of walking we bet you didn’t know! Did you know walking can be the miracle pill for eternal youth? Everyone knows walking is good for…
Dragon Fruit – Blessing from Nature’s Basket Dragon fruit is packed with nutrients but low on calories. It is the dream food that can help…
xylitol gum
Xylitol : Is this the right sugar substitute for you? Discovered during World War 2 owing to sugar shortage, xylitol has become a common name in pharamaceutical industry.…
gallbladder diet tomato
Gallbladder surgery :Tips on post-operative care and diet What to eat post a gallbladder surgery? What are the key things to avoid if you had a…
How can berberine supplements help you live longer and healthier? Berberine is a turmeric look-alike herbal extract that is credited with numerous health benefits ranging from diabetes cure…
How to correctly perform nasal irrigation using a Neti Pot? Neti pot has been a part of Ayurveda since centuries. This ancient tool is extremely effective in treating…
Experts reveal the safest ways to perform an enema at home The idea of pushing some up your rectal area might make you queasy but an enema could actually…
Barium-enema
Barium Enema Barium enema is also known as colon x-ray. Here, the patient is asked to consume small amount of…
GGt test
GGT – Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase Test GGT or gammaglutamyl transferase test is a liver function test that is used to detect the extent of…
Bloodtestalbumin
Albumin Test Albumin test or blood serum test is a liver function test that measures the amount of the protein…
blood elements analysis
Blood Element Analysis Test A blood element analysis is a blood test performed to measure the level of toxic elements such as…
fructosamine test
Fructosamine Test A fructosamine test measures blood sugar glucose content. Fructosamine level can indicate blood sugar level in past 2-3…
anoscopy
Anoscopy Anoscopy is an invasive diagnostic procedure where a small device known as anoscope will be inserted in the…
Diabetes blood test
Diabetic Profile The diabetic profile is a set of tests used for testing and monitoring the various kinds of Diabetes…
oral hygiene tips
6 shocking consequences of bad oral hygiene (and how to avoid them) Did you know bad breath is not just turning off, but also harms your body in ways you…
avocado benefits
Avocado: 15 reasons why this fruit should be a staple in your diet Did you know that the word avocado literally means "testicles". Don't get grossed out as this power-packed fruit…
black seed oil benefits
Black Seed Oil: What secret benefits could it bestow on your health? Black seeds or nigella seeds are tiny packets of health brimming with amazing benefits. Find out why should…
Cayenne: The remarkable benefits of these red hot chili peppers These may make you rush for a glass of water, but cayenne pepper is actually a healthy additive…
Kava: Is it the healthy substitute for alcohol you have been waiting for? Native to the beautiful South Pacific islands, Kava is a famous beverage rooted in the local culture. It…
How seitan proved to be a blessing in disguise for vegans worldwide Can only meat-eaters enjoy delicious juicy steaks and burgers? With seitan, the best meat substitute available today,even vegans…
Mood swings
The real reasons for your mood swings and how to overcome them Are you prone to heated moods frequently? Do you also feel bouts of depressive feeling creeping up on…
Quinine: How gin and tonic came to be known as a potent health elixir The discovery of quinine-containing tree bark is sometimes considered the most serendipitous medical discovery of the 17th century.
glucose-tolerance
Oral Glucose Tolerance Test – GTT Glucose tolerance test (or Oral GTT) is used to detect the onset of diabetes or prediabetes conditions. It…
ASTtest-liver
AST- Aspartate Aminotransferase Test AST test is a blood test that is used to measure the level of a particular liver enzyme…
ANTIPHOSPHOLIPIDANTIBODY(APL)_IgG
Antiphospholipid (APL) antibody-IgG The Antiphospholipid Antibody testing is a blood test used to determine an autoimmune disorder called Antiphospholipid syndrome linked…
Strep throat pain
Anti-Streptolysin-O Test The ASO or Anti-Streptolysin-O is a blood test designed to check for the presence of streptococcus bacterial infection…
vdrl test syphilis
VDRL Test The VDRL test is a blood test that is used to diagnose sexually transmitted or venereal diseases, primarily…
malarial antigen test
Malaria Antigen Test A malaria antigen test is a rapid diagnostic test (RDT) that can detect malarial antigens (proteins) in your…
iron deficiency profile
Iron Deficiency Profile An iron deficiency profile is a battery of blood tests which are performed in order to determine the…
Hepatitis A virus infected liver
Hepatitis A Virus (HAV) Total Blood test to look for IgM antibodies to know if you are infected with Hepatitis A virus (HAV),…
stress depressed anxiety
Are you depressed or just stressed? Know when to see a doctor Why are some people more anxious than others? Is being depressed the same as feeling sad? Have you…
sugar toxic health
Sugar: 7 new shocking truths revealed about the sweet poison Can drinking soda bring you closer to death? Is sugar slowly poisoning you and your family? You would…
L-theanine attention
L-Theanine: Better sleep, higher focus, and many other benefits Did you know that L-theanine found in green tea can make you sleep better and be focused at…
High Fiber Diet – Fire up your fiber intake for these health benefits! Regular bowels, healthy detox, higher immunity, and guaranteed weight loss - a high fiber diet can bring all…
Agave nectar: The bitter truth about this sweetener revealed Agave nectar is considered to be sweeter than the normal table sugar and even contains higher amounts of…
gout diet purines
Gout Diet : Get relief from painful joints by eating these foods Are you a victim of this painful condition? Are medications providing only short relief? Find a list of…
DHEA wrinkles
DHEA: Now get unbelievable age defiance with this wonder hormone! DHEA is known popularly as the age-defying hormone. This supplement is widely used to slow down aging and…
Oil of Oregano: The one-stop essential oil you’ve been looking for Are you plagued by a weak immune system? High body inflammation accompanied by pain and infections? Why not…
How can Kegels help you overcome weak pelvic muscles & incontinence? Kegel exercises are pelvic floor strengthening exercises that can help you overcome incontinence issues that rise out of…
Pescatarian Diet 101: What are the inherent health advantages of this diet? People opt to become a pescatarian in order to enrich their bodies with the essential health benefits that…
What is the right way to take a pregnancy test? A pregnancy test is undertaken to determine if you have conceived. A home pregnancy test is the most…
Inhale oxygen, exhale worries: The top breathing exercises and how to perform them Performing the breathing exercise is like becoming mindful of how you breathe.  Here is a list of breathing…
hemoglobin variant analysis
Hemoglobin Variant Analysis Hemoglobin variant analysis is a blood test that is used to detect the presence of hemoglobin variants which…
cystatin C
Cystatin C Test Cystatin C is a specific single-chain protein that is found in body fluids and is a biomarker for…
piles fissure fistula
Allopathy vs homeopathy vs ayurveda treatment for piles, fissures, and fistula Read to know the best form of treatment among allopathy, homeopathy,or ayurveda for piles, fissures, and fistula

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